Alpers, C., and Brimhall, G., 1988. Middle Miocene climate change in the Atacama Desert, northern Chile: evidence from supergene mineralization at La Escondida. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 100:1640–1656.

Barker, P.F., and Burrell, J., 1977. The opening of Drake Passage. Mar. Geol., 25:15–24.

Beaufort, L., Garidel-Thoron, T., Mix, A.C., and Pisias, N.G., 2001. ENSO-like forcing on oceanic primary production during the late Pleistocene. Science, 293:2440–2444.

Behl, R.J., and Kennett, J.P., 1996. Brief interstadial events in the Santa Barbara Basin, NE Pacific, during the last 60 kyr. Nature, 379:243–246.

Bender, M.L., Malize, B., Orchardo, J., Sowers, T., and Jouzel, J., 1999. High precision correlations of Greenland and Antarctic ice core records over the last 100 kyr, in mechanisms of millennial scale global climate change. In Clark, P.U., Webb, R.S., and Keigwin, L.D. (Eds.), Mechanisms of Global Climate Change at Millennial Time Scales. Geophys. Monogr., Am. Geophys. Union, 112:149–164.

Berger, W.H., and Jansen, E., 1994. Mid-Pleistocene climate shift: the Nansen connection. In Johannessen, O.M., Muensch, R.D., and Overland, J.E. (Eds.), The Role of the Polar Oceans in Shaping the Global Environment. Geophys. Monogr., Am. Geophys. Union, 85:295–311.

Berger, W.H., Lange, C.B., and Weinheimer, A., 1997. Silica depletion of the thermocline in the eastern North Pacific during glacial conditions: clues from Ocean Drilling Program Site 893, Santa Barbara Basin, California. Geology, 25:619–622.

Berger, W.H., and Wefer, G., 1996. Central themes of South Atlantic circulation. In Wefer, G., Berger, W.H., Siedler, G., Webb, D.J. (Eds.), The South Atlantic: Present and Past Circulation: Berlin (Springer-Verlag), 1–11.

Berggren, W.A., and Hollister, C.D., 1974. Paleogeography, paleobiogeography, and the history of circulation of the Atlantic Ocean. In Hay, W.W. (Ed.), Studies in Paleo-oceanography. Spec. Publ.—Soc. Econ. Paleontol. Mineral., 20:126–186.

Blunier, T., Chappellaz, J., Schwander, J., Dällenbach, A., Stauffer, B., Stocker, T.F., Raynaud, D., Jouzel, J., Clausen, H.B., Hammer, C.U., and Johnson, S.J., 1998. Asynchrony of Antarctic and Greenland climate change during the last glacial period. Nature, 394:739–743.

Blunier, T., Schwander, J., Stauffer, B., Stocker, T., Dällenbach, A., Indermühle, A., Tschumi, J., Chappellaz, J., Raynaud, D., and Barnola, J.M., 1997. Timing of the Antarctic Cold Reversal and the atmospheric CO₂ increase with respect to the Younger Dryas event. Geophys. Res. Lett., 24:2683–2686.

Bond, G., Kromer, B., Beer, J., Muscheler, R., Evans, M.N., Showers, W., Hoffmann, S., Lotti-Bond, R. Hajdas, I., Bonani, G., 2001. Persistent solar influence on North Atlantic climate during the Holocene. Science, 294:2130–2136.

Bond, G., Showers, W., Cheseby, M., Lotti, R., Almasi, P., deMenocal, P., Priore, P., Cullen, H., Hajda, I., and Bonani, G., 1997. A pervasive millennial-scale cycle in North Atlantic Holocene and glacial climates. Science, 278:1257–1266.

Brewster, N.A., 1980. Cenozoic biogenic silica sedimentation in the Antarctic Ocean. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 91:337–347.

Broecker, W.S. 1998. Paleocean circulation during the last deglaciation: a bipolar seesaw? Paleoceanography, 13:119–121.

————, 1991. The great ocean conveyor. Oceanography, 4:79–89.

Broecker, W.S., Bond, G., Klas, M., Bonani, G., and Wolfli, W., 1990. A salt oscillator in the glacial Atlantic? 1. The concept. Paleoceanography, 5:469–477.

Broecker, W.S., and Peng, T.-H., 1982. Tracers in the Sea: Palisades, New York (Lamont-Doherty Geol. Observ.).

Bryden, H.L., and Brady, E.C., 1985. Diagnostic model of the three-dimensional circulation in the upper Equatorial Pacific Ocean. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 15:1255–1273.

Cande, S.C., and Kent, D.V., 1995. Revised calibration of the geomagnetic polarity timescale for the Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic. J. Geophys. Res., 100:6093–6095.

Cande, S.C., Leslie, R.B., Parra, J.C., and Hobart, M., 1987. Interaction between the Chile Ridge and Chile Trench: geophysical and geothermal evidence. J. Geophys. Res., 92:495–520.

Cane, M., and Clement, A.C., 1999. A role for the tropical Pacific coupled ocean-atmosphere system on Milankovitch and millennial timescales, Part II: global impacts. In Clark, P.U., Webb, R.S., and Keigwin, L.D. (Eds.), Mechanisms of Global Climate Change at Millennial Time Scales. Geophys. Monogr., Am. Geophys. Union, 112:373–383.

Cannariato, K.G., Kennett, J.P., and Behl, R.J., 1999. Biotic response to late Quaternary rapid climate switches in Santa Barbara Basin: ecological and evolutionary implications. Geology, 27:63–66.

Cannariato, K.G., and Ravelo, A.C., 1997. Pliocene–Pleistocene evolution of the eastern Pacific surface water circulation and thermocline depth. Paleoceanography, 12:805–820.

Charles, C.D., Lynch-Stieglitz, J., Ninnemann, U.S., and Fairbanks, R.G., 1996. Climate connections between the hemispheres revealed by deep sea sediment core/ice core correlations. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 142:19–27.

Clark, C.D., Knight, J.K., Gray, J.T., 2000. Geomorphological reconstruction of the Labrador sector of the Laurentide ice sheet. Quat. Sci. Rev., 19:1343–1366.

Clark, P.U., and Pollard, D., 1998. Origin of the middle Pleistocene transition by ice sheet erosion of regolith. Paleoceanography, 13:1–9.

Claypool, G.E., and Kvenvolden, K.A., 1983. Methane and other hydrocarbon gases in marine sediment. Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci., 11:299–327.

Clement, A.C., Seager, R., and Cane, M.A., 1999. Orbital controls on the El Niño/Southern Oscillation and the tropical climate. Paleoceanography, 14:441–456.

Codispoti, L.A., and Christensen, J.P., 1985. Nitrification, denitrification and nitrous oxide cycling in the eastern tropical South Pacific Ocean. Mar. Chem., 16:277–300.

Collins, L.S., Coates, A.G., Berggren, W.A., Aubry, M.-P., and Zhang, J., 1996. The late Miocene Panama isthmian strait. Geology, 24:687–690.

Cox, A., and Engebretson, D., 1985. Changes in motion of the Pacific plate at 5 Myr BP. Nature, 313:472–474.

Crowley, T.J., Kim, K.-Y., Mengel, J.G., and Short, D.A., 1992. Modeling 100,000-year climate fluctuations in pre-Pleistocene time series. Science, 255:705–707.

Curry, W.B., Shackleton, N.J., Richter, C., et al., 1995. Proc. ODP, Init. Repts., 154: College Station, TX (Ocean Drilling Program).

DeMets, C., Gordon, R.G., Argus, D.F., and Stein, S., 1990. Current plate motions. Geophys. J. Int., 101:425–478.

Dengo, G., 1985. Tectonic setting for the Pacific margin from southern Mexico to northwestern Columbia. In Naim, A.E., Stehli, F.G., and Uyeda, S. (Eds.), The Pacific Ocean: The Ocean Basins and Margins, 7A: New York (Plenum Press), 123–180.

Denton, G.H., Heusser, C.J., Lowell, T.V., Moreno, P.J., Andersen, B.G., Heusser, L.E., Schlüchter, C., and Marchant, D.R., 1999. Interhemispheric linkage of paleoclimate during the last glaciation. Geografiska Annaler, 81A:107–153.

Detrick, R.S., and Crough, S.T., 1978. Island subsidence, hot spots, and lithospheric thinning. J. Geophys. Res., 83:1236–1244.

Driscoll, N.W., and Haug, G.H., 1998. A short circuit in thermohaline circulation: a cause for northern hemisphere glaciation? Science, 282:436–438.

Duque-Caro, H., 1990. Neogene stratigraphy, paleoceanography and paleobiogeography in northwest South America and the evolution of the Panama Seaway. Palaeogeogr., Palaeoclimatol., Palaeoecol., 77:203–234.

Farrell, J.W., Pedersen, T.F., Calvert, S.E., Nielsen, B., 1995a. Glacial-interglacial changes in nutrient utilization in the equatorial Pacific Ocean. Nature, 377:515–517.

Farrell, J.W., Raffi, I., Janecek, T.C., Murray, D.W., Levitan, M., Dadey, K.A., Emeis, K.-C., Lyle, M., Flores, J.-A., and Hovan, S., 1995b. Late Neogene sedimentation patterns in the eastern equatorial Pacific. In Pisias, N.G., Mayer, L.A., Janecek, T.R., Palmer-Julson, A., and van Andel, T.H. (Eds.), Proc. ODP, Sci. Results, 138: College Station, TX (Ocean Drilling Program), 717–756.

Feldberg, M.J., and Mix, A.C., 2002. Sea-surface temperature estimates in the Southeast Pacific based on planktonic foraminiferal species: modern calibration and last glacial maximum. Mar. Micropaleontol., 44:1–29.

Frakes, L.A., 1979. Climate Throughout Geological Time: New York (Elsevier).

Ganeshram, R.S., Pedersen, T.F., Calvert, S.E., and Murray, J.W., 1995. Large changes in oceanic nutrient inventories from glacial to interglacial periods. Nature, 376:755–758.

Gildor, H., and Tziperman, E., 2001. Sea ice as the glacial cycles' climate switch: role of seasonal and orbital forcing. Paleoceanography, 15:605–615.

Gordon, A.I., 1986. Interocean exchange of thermocline water. J. Geophys. Res., 91:5037–5046.

Gregory-Wodzicki, K.M., 2000. Uplift history of the central and northern Andes: a review. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 112:1091–1105.

Grootes, P.M., Stuvier, M., White, J.W.C., Johnsen, S., and Jouzel, J., 1993. Comparison of oxygen isotope records from the GISP2 and GRIP Greenland ice cores. Nature, 366:552–554.

Harris, S.E., and Mix, A.C., 1999. Pleistocene precipitation balance in the Amazon Basin recorded in deep-sea sediments. Quat. Res., 51:14-26.

————, 2002. Climate and tectonic influences on continental erosion in tropical South America, 0–13 Ma. Geology, 30:447–450.

Hartley, A., and Chong, G., 2002. Late Pliocene age for the Atacama Desert: implications for the desertification of western South America. Geology, 30:43–46.

Haug, G.H., and Tiedemann, R., 1998. Effect of the formation of the Isthmus of Panama on Atlantic Ocean thermohaline circulation. Nature, 393:673–676.

Haug, G.H., Tiedemann, R., Zahn, R., and Ravelo, A.C., 2001. Role of Panama uplift on oceanic freshwater balance. Geology, 29:207–210.

Hay, W.W., 1996. Tectonics and climate. Geol. Rundsch., 85:409–437.

Hebbeln, D., Wefer, G., Baltazar, M., Beese, D., Bendtsen, J., Butzin, M., Daneri, G., Dellarossa, V., Diekamp, V., Dittert, N., Donner, B., Giese, M., Glud, R., Gundersen, J., Haese, R., and Hensen, C, 1995. Report and preliminary results of SONNE-Cruise SO 102, Valparaiso–Valparaiso, 95. Berichte aus dem Fachbereich Geowissenschaften der Universität Bremen, 68: Bremen, Germany (Geowissenschaften der Universität Bremen), 1–134.

Hendy, I.L., and Kennett, J.P., 1999. Latest Quaternary North Pacific surface water responses imply atmosphere-driven climate instability. Geology, 27:291–294.

————, 2000a. Dansgaard-Oeschger cycles and the California current system: planktonic foraminiferal response to rapid climate change in Santa Barbara Basin, Ocean Drilling Program Hole 893A. Paleoceanography, 15:30–42.

————, 2000b. Stable isotope stratigraphy and paleoceanography of the last 170 k.y.: Site 1014, Tanner Basin, California. In Lyle, M., Koizumi, I., Richter, C., and Moore, T.C. (Eds.), Proc. ODP, Sci. Results, 167: College Station, TX (Ocean Drilling Program), 129–140.

Herron, E.M., Cande, S.C., and Hall, B.R., 1981. An active spreading center collides with a subduction zone: a geophysical survey of the Chile margin triple junction. Mem.—Geol. Soc. Am., 154:683–701.

Heusser, L.E., Heusser, C.J., Kleczkowski, A., and Crowhurst, S., 1999. A 50,000-yr pollen record from Chile of South American millennial-scale climate instability during the last glaciation. Quat. Res., 52:154–158.

Hey, R., Johnson, G.L., and Lowrie, A., 1977. Recent plate motions in the Galapagos area. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 88:1385–1403.

Hooghiemstra, H., and Ran, E.T.H., 1994. Late Pliocene–Pleistocene high resolution pollen sequence of Colombia: an overview of climate change. Quat. Intern., 21:63–80.

Hovan, S.A., 1995. Late Cenozoic atmospheric circulation intensity and climatic history recorded by eolian deposition in the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean, Leg 138. In Pisias, N.G., Mayer, L.A., Janecek, T.R., Palmer-Julson, A., and van Andel, T.H. (Eds.), Proc. ODP, Sci. Results, 138: College Station, TX (Ocean Drilling Program), 615–625.

Imbrie, J., Boyle, E.A., Clemens, S.C., Duffy, A., Howard, W.R., Kukla, G., Kutzbach, J., Martinson, D.G., McIntyre, A., Mix, A.C., Molfino, B., Morley, J.J., Peterson, L.C., Pisias, N.G., Prell, W.L., Raymo, M.E., Shackleton, N.J., and Toggweiler, J.R., 1993. On the structure and origin of major glaciation cycles, 2. The 100,000-year cycle. Paleoceanography, 8:698–736.

Imbrie, J., McIntyre, A., and Mix, A., 1989. Oceanic response to orbital forcing in the late Quaternary: observational and experimental strategies. In Berger, A., Schneider, S., and Duplessy, J.C. (Eds.), Climate and Geo-Sciences: Dordrecht (Kluwer Academic), 121–164.

Jousaumme, S., Sadourny, R., and Vignal, C., 1986. Origin of precipitating water in a numerical simulation of the July climate. Ocean-Air Interact., 1:43–56.

Kennett, J.P., and Ingram, B.L., 1995. A 20,000-year record of ocean circulation and climate change from the Santa Barbara Basin. Nature, 377:510–513.

Kim, J., Schneider, R.R., Hebbeln, D., Müller, P.J., and Wefer, G., in press. Alkenone-derived high-resolution sea surface temperature reconstruction in the eastern South Pacific off mid-latitude Chile over the past 33 kyr. Quat. Sci. Rev.

Kroopnick, P., 1985. The distribution of ¹³C of SCO₂ in the world oceans. Deep-Sea Res. Part A, 32:57–84.

Labeyrie, L., and Elliot, M., 1999. Abrupt climatic changes—causes and consequences: an introduction. In Abrantes, F., and Mix, A. (Eds.), Reconstructing Ocean History, a Window into the Future: New York (Kluwer), 73–82.

Lamy, F., Hebbeln, D., Röhl, U., and Wefer, G., 2001. Holocene rainfall variability in southern Chile: a marine record of latitudinal shifts of the southern Westerlies. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 185:369–382.

Lamy, F., Hebbeln, D., and Wefer, G., 1998. Terrigenous sediment supply along the Chilean continental margin: modern regional patterns of texture and composition. Geol. Rundsch., 87:477–494.

————, 1999. High-resolution marine record of climatic change in mid-latitude Chile during the last 28,000 years based on terrigenous sediment parameters. Quat. Res., 51:83–93.

Lamy, F., Klump, J., Hebbeln, D., and Wefer, G., 2000. Late Quaternary rapid climate change in northern Chile. Terra Nova, 12:8–13.

Lamy, F., Rühlemann, C., Hebbeln, D., and Wefer, G., 2002. High- and low-latitude control on the position of the southern Peru-Chile current during the Holocene. Paleoceanography, 17(2).

Lea, D.W., Pak, D.K., and Spero, H.J., 2000. Climate impact of late Quaternary equatorial Pacific sea surface temperature variations. Science, 289:1719–1724.

Lenters, J.D., Cook, K.H.,and Ringler, T.D., 1995. Comments on "On the influence of the Andes on the general circulation of the Southern Hemisphere." J. Clim., 8:2113–2115.

Levitus, S., Conkright, M.E., Reid, J.L., Najjar, R.G., and Mantyla, N.A., 1993. Distribution of nitrate, phosphate, and silicate in the world oceans. Prog. Oceanogr., 31:245–273.

Liu, Z., and Huang, B., 2000. Cause of tropical Pacific warming trend. Geophys. Res. Lett., 27:1935–1938.

Lonsdale, P., 1976. Abyssal circulation of the southeastern Pacific and some geological implications. J. Geophys. Res., 81:1163–1176.

Lonsdale, P., and Klitgord, K.D., 1978. Structure and tectonic history of the eastern Panama Basin. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 89:981–999.

Loubere, P., 2000. Marine control of biological production in the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean. Nature, 406:497–500.

Lowell, T.V., Heusser, C.J., Andersen, B.G., Moreno, P.I., Hauser, A., Heusser, L.E., Schlüchter, C., Marchant, D.R., Denton, G.H., 1995. Interhemispheric correlation of late Pleistocene glacial events. Science, 269:1541–1549.

Lyle, M., Dadey, K.A., and Farrell, J.W., 1995. The late Miocene (11–8 Ma) eastern Pacific carbonate crash: evidence for reorganization of deep-water circulation by the closure of the Panama Gateway. In Pisias, N.G., Mayer, L.A., Janecek, T.R., Palmer-Julson, A., and van Andel, T.H. (Eds.), Proc. ODP, Sci. Results, 138: College Station, TX (Ocean Drilling Program), 821–838.

Lyle, M., Murray, D.W., Finney, B.P., Dymond, J., Robbins, J.M., and Brooksforce, K., 1988. The record of Late Pleistocene biogenic sedimentation in the eastern tropical Pacific Ocean. Paleoceanography, 3:39–59.

Maasch, K.A., and Saltzman, B., 1990. A low-order dynamical model of global climatic variability over the full Pleistocene. J. Geophys. Res., 95:1955–1963.

MacAyeal, D., 1993. Binge/purge oscillations of the Laurentide ice sheet as a cause of the North Atlantic's Heinrich events. Paleoceanography, 8:775–784.

Magaña, V., Amador, J.A., and Medina, S., 1999. The midsummer drought over Mexico and Central America. J. Clim., 12:1577–1588.

Martinez-Pardo, R., 1990. Major Neogene events of the southeastern Pacific: the Chilean and Peruvian Record. Palaeogeogr., Palaeoclimatol., Palaeoecol., 77:263–278.

Martinson, D.G., Menke, W., and Stoffa, P.L., 1982. An inverse approach to signal correlation. J. Geophys. Res., 87:4807–4818.

McIntyre, A., and Molfino, B., 1996. Forcing of Atlantic equatorial and subpolar millennial cycles by precession. Science, 274:1867–1870.

McIntyre, A., Ruddiman, W.F., Karlin, K., and Mix, A.C., 1989. Surface water response of the equatorial Atlantic Ocean to orbital forcing. Paleoceanography, 4:19–55.

Mikolajewicz, U., and Crowley, T.J., 1997. Response of a coupled ocean/energy balance model to restricted flow through the Central American isthmus. Paleoceanography, 12:429–441.

Mikolajewicz, U., Crowley, T.J., Schiller, A., and Voss, R., 1997. Modelling teleconnections between the North Atlantic and North Pacific during the Younger Dryas. Nature, 387:384–387.

Mikolajewicz, U., Maier-Reimer, E., Crowley, T.J., and Kim, K.-Y., 1993. Effect of Drakeand Panamanian gateways on the circulation of an ocean model. Paleoceanography, 8:409–426.

Mix, A.C., 1989. Influence of productivity variations on long-term atmospheric CO₂. Nature, 337:541–544.

Mix, A.C., Le, J., and Shackleton, N.J., 1995. Benthic foraminiferal stable isotope stratigraphy of Site 846: 0–1.8 Ma. In Pisias, N.G., Mayer, L.A., Janecek, T.R., Palmer-Julson, A., and van Andel, T.H. (Eds.), Proc. ODP, Sci. Results, 138: College Station, TX (Ocean Drilling Program), 839–854.

Mix, A.C., Lund, D.C., Pisias, N.G., Bodén, P., Bornmalm, L., Lyle, M., and Pike, J., 1999a. Rapid climate oscillations in the Northeast Pacific during the last deglaciation reflect Northern and Southern Hemisphere sources. In Webb, R.S., Clark, P.U., and Keigwin, L. (Eds.), Mechanisms of Millennial-scale Global Climate Change. Geophys. Monogr., Am. Geophys. Union, 112:127–148.

Mix, A.C., Mayer, L.A., Bloomer, S.F., and Pisias, N.G., 1996. Southeast Pacific Paleoceanographic Depth Transects—Site Survey Data Package 1: Site Tables, Bathymetry, Seismic Constraints: Corvalis (Oregon State Univ.).

Mix, A.C., Morey, A.E., Pisias, N.G., and Hostetler, S., 1999b. Foraminiferal faunal estimates of paleotemperatures: circumventing the no-analog problems yields cool ice-age tropics. Paleoceanography, 14:350–359.

Mix, A.C, Pisias, N.G., Goldfinger, C., Lyle, M., Liberty, L., Janik, A., Hebbeln, D., Wefer, G., and Lamy, F., 2000. Southeast Pacific Paleoceanographic Transects, Site Survey Data Package 4: NEMO Expedition, Leg III, R/V Melville, May–June 2000: Corvallis (Oregon State Univ.).

Mix, A.C., Pisias, N.G., Goldfinger, C., West, B., Mayer, L.A., and Bloomer, S.F., 1997. Southeast Pacific Paleoceanographic Transects, Site Survey Data Package 2: Genesis Leg III, R/V Roger Revelle, Feb.–Apr. 1997. Corvallis (Oregon State Univ.).

Mix, A.C., Pisias, N.G., Zahn, R., Rugh, W., Lopez, C., and Nelson, K., 1991. Carbon 13 in Pacific deep and intermediate waters, 0–370 Ka: implications for ocean circulation and Pleistocene CO₂. Paleoceanography, 6:205–226.

Molina-Cruz, A., 1977. The relation of the southern trade winds to upwelling processes during the last 75,000 years. Quat. Res., 8:324–339.

Moreno, P.I., Jacobson, G.L., Lowell, T.V., and Denton, G.H., 2001. Interhemispheric climate links revealed by a late-glacial cooling episode in southern Chile. Nature, 409:804–808.

Muller R.A., and MacDonald, G.J., 1997. Glacial cycles and astronomical forcing. Science, 277:215–218.

Ninkovich, D., and Shackleton, N.J., 1975. Distribution, stratigraphic position and age of ash layer "L," in the Panama Basin region. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 27:20–34.

Ninnemann, U.S., and Charles, C.D., 1997. Regional differences in Quaternary subantarctic nutrient cycling: link to intermediate and deep water ventilation. Paleoceanography, 12:560–567.

Oberhänsli, H., Heinze, P., Diester-Haass, L., and Wefer, G., 1990. Upwelling off Peru during the last 430,000 yr and its relationship to the bottom-water environment, as deduced from coarse grain-size distributions and analyses of benthic foraminifers at holes 679D, 680B, and 681B, Leg 112. In Suess, E., von Huene, R., et al., Proc. ODP, Sci. Results, 112: College Station, TX (Ocean Drilling Program), 369–390.

Oppo, D.W., and Fairbanks, R.G., 1989. Carbon isotope composition of tropical surface water during the past 22,000 years. Paleoceanography, 4:333–351.

Parsons, B., and Sclater, J.G., 1977. An analysis of the variation of ocean floor bathymetry and heat flow with age. J. Geophys. Res., 82:803–827.

Pickard, G.L., and Emery, W.J., 1990. Descriptive Physical Oceanography: An Introduction (5th ed.): New York (Pergamon).

Pisias, N.G., Mayer, L.A., and Mix, A.C., 1995. Paleoceanography of the eastern equatorial Pacific during the Neogene: synthesis of Leg 138 drilling results. In Pisias, N.G., Mayer, L.A., Janecek, T.R., Palmer-Julson, A., and van Andel, T.H. (Eds.), Proc. ODP, Sci. Results, 138: College Station, TX (Ocean Drilling Program), 5–21.

Pisias, N.G., and Mix, A.C., 1997. Spatial and temporal oceanographic variability of the eastern equatorial Pacific during the late Pleistocene: evidence from radiolaria microfossils. Paleoceanography, 12:381–393.

Pisias, N.G., and Moore, T.C., Jr., 1981. The evolution of Pleistocene climate: a time series approach. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 52:450–458.

Pye, K., 1987. Aeolian Dust and Dust Deposits: London (Academic Press).

Rahmstorf, S., 1995. Bifurcations of the Atlantic thermohaline circulation in response to changes in the hydrological cycle. Nature, 378:145–150.

Reid, J.L., 1973. Transpacific hydrographic sections at lats. 43 degrees S and 28 degrees S: the SCORPIO Expedition III. Upper water and a note on southward flow at mid depth. Deep-Sea Res., 20:39–50.

Rodbell, D.T., Seltzer, G.O., Andreson, D.M., Abbott, M.A., Enfield, D.B., and Newman J.H., 1999. An ~15,000 year record of El Niño-driven alluviation in southwestern Ecuador. Science, 283:516–520.

Roth, J.M., Droxler, A.W., and Kameo, K., 2000. The Caribbean carbonate crash at the middle to late Miocene transition: linkage to the establishment of the modern global ocean conveyor. In Leckie, R.M., Sigurdsson, H., Acton, G.D., and Draper, G. (Eds.), Proc. ODP, Sci. Results, 165: College Station, TX (Ocean Drilling Program), 249–273.

Ruddiman, W.F., and Raymo, M.E., 1988. Northern hemisphere climatic regimes during the past 3 Ma: possible tectonic connections. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London B, 318:411–430.

Strub, P.T., Mesias, J.M., Montecino, V., Rutllant, J., and Salinas, S., 1998. Coastal ocean circulation off western South America. In Robinson, A.R., and Brink, K.H. (Eds.), The Sea (Vol. 11): Coastal Oceans: New York (Wiley), 273–313.

Talley, L.D., 1993. Distribution and formation of North Pacific intermediate water. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 23:517–537.

Tans, P.P., Fung, I.Y., and Takahashi, T., 1990. Observational constraints on the global atmospheric CO₂ budget. Science, 247:1431–1436.

Thompson, L.G., Davis, M.E., Mosley-Thompson, E., Sowers, T.A., Henderson, K.A., Zagorodnov, V.S., Lin, P.N., Mikhalenko, V.N., Campen, R.K., Bolzan, J.F., Cole-Dai, J., and Francou, B., 1998. A 25,000-year tropical climate history from Bolivian ice cores. Science, 282:1858–1864.

Toggweiler, J.R., Dixon, K., and Broecker, W.S., 1991. The Peru upwelling and the ventilation of the south Pacific thermocline. J. Geophys. Res., 96:20467–20497.

Toggweiler, J.R., and Samuels, B., 1993. Is the magnitude of the deep outflow from the Atlantic Ocean actually governed by southern hemisphere winds? In Heimann, M. (Ed.), The Global Carbon Cycle: Berlin (Springer-Verlag), 303–331.

Tsuchiya, M., and Talley, L.D., 1998. A Pacific hydrographic section at 88°W: water-property distribution. J. Geophys. Res., 103:12899–12918.

van der Hammen, T., Werner, J.H., and Van Dommelen, H., 1973. Palynological record of the upheaval of the Northern Andes: a study of the Pliocene and Lower Quaternary of the Colombian Eastern Cordillera and the early evolution of its High-Andean biota. Rev. Palaeobot. Palynol., 16:1–122.

Wunsch, C., Hu, D.X., and Grant, B., 1983. Mass, heat, salt, and nutrient fluxes in the South Pacific Ocean. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 13:725–753.

Wyrtki, K., 1962. The oxygen minimum in relation to ocean circulation. Deep-Sea Res., 9:11–23.

————, 1981. An estimate of equatorial upwelling in the Pacific. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 11:1205–1214.

Zachos, J.C., Pagani, M., Sloan, L., Thomas, E., and Billups, K., 2001. Trends, rhythms, and aberrations in global climate 65 Ma to present. Science, 292:686–693.

Zaucker, F., Stocker, T.F., and Broecker, W.S., 1994. Atmospheric freshwater fluxes and their effect on the global thermohaline circulation. J. Geophys. Res., 99:12443–12457.