Figures and captions | Table of Contents

REFERENCES

Barker, P.F., and Burrell, J., 1977. The opening of Drake Passage. Mar. Geol., 25:15-34.

Beaufort, L., Gariel-Thoron, T., Mix, A.C., Pisias, N.G., 2001. ENSO-like forcing on oceanic primary production during the late Pleistocene. Science, 293:2440-2444.

Behl, R.J., and Kennett, J.P., 1996. Brief interstadial events in the Santa Barbara Basin, NE Pacific, during the past 60 kyr. Nature, 379:243-246

Berger, W.H., Lange, C.B., and Weinheimer, A., 1997. Silica depletion of the thermocline in the eastern North Pacific during glacial conditions: clues from Ocean Drilling Program Site 893, Santa Barbara Basin, California. Geology, 25:619-622.

Berger,W.H., and Wefer, G., 1996. Expeditions into the past: paleoceanographic studies in the South Atlantic. In Wefer, G., Berger, W.H., Siedler, G., and Webb, D.J. (Eds.), The South Atlantic: Present and Past Circulation: Berlin (Springer-Verlag), 363-410.

Berggren, W.A., and Hollister, C.D., 1974. Paleogeography, paleobiogeography, and the history of circulation of the Atlantic Ocean. In Hay, W.W. (Ed.), Studies in Paleoceanography. Soc. Econ. Paleontol. Mineral. Spec. Publ., 20:126-186.

Bloomer, S.F., Mayer, L.A., and Moore, T.C., 1995. Seismic stratigraphy of the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean: paleoceanographic implications. In Pisias, N.G., Mayer, L., Janecek, T., Palmer Julson, A., van Andel, T.H. (Eds.), Proc. ODP, Sci. Results, 138: College Station, TX (Ocean Drilling Program), 537-553.

Blunier, T., Chappellaz, J., Schwander, J., Dällenbach, A., Stauffer, B., Stocker, T.F., Raynaud, D., Jouzel, J., Clausen, H.B., Hammer, C.U., and Johnsen, S.J., 1998. Asynchrony of Antarctic and Greenland climate change during the last glacial period. Nature, 394:739-743.

Blunier, T., Schwander, J., Stauffer, B., Stocker, T., Dällenbach, A., Indermühle, A., Tschumi, J., Chappellaz, J., Raynaud, D., Barnola, J.M., 1997. Timing of the Antarctic Cold Reversal and the atmospheric CO2 increase with respect to the Younger Dryas event. Geophys. Res. Lett., 24:2683-2686.

Bond, G., Showers, W., Cheseby, M., Lotti, R., Almasi, P., deMenocal, P., Priore, P., Cullen, H., Hajda, I., and Bonani, G., 1997. A pervasive millennial-scale cycle in North Atlantic Holocene and Glacial climates. Science, 278:1257-1266.

Brewster, N.A., 1980. Cenozoic biogenic silica sedimentation in the Antarctic Ocean. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull., 91:337-347.

Broecker, W.S., 1991. The great ocean conveyor. Oceanography, 4:79-89.

Broecker, W.S., 1998. Paleocean circulation during the last deglaciation: A bipolar seesaw? Paleoceanography, 13:119-121.

Broecker, W.S., Bond, G., Klas, M., Bonani, G., and Wolfli, W., 1990. A salt oscillator in the glacial Atlantic? 1. The concept. Paleoceanography, 5:469-478.

Bryden, H.L., and Brady, E.C., 1985. Diagnostic model of the three-dimensional circulation in the upper Equatorial Pacific Ocean. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 15:1255-1273.

Campin, J.-M., Fichefet, T., and Duplessy, J.-C., 1999. Problems with using radiocarbon to infer ocean ventilation rates for past and present climates. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 165:17-24.

Cande, S.C., and Haxby, W.F., 1991. Eocene propagating rifts in the Southwest Pacific and their conjugate features on the Nazca plate. J. Geophys. Res., 96(B12):19609-19622.

Cande, S.C., and Kent, D.V., 1995. Revised calibration of the geomagnetic polarity timescale for the late Cretaceous and Cenozoic. J. Geophys. Res., 100:6093-6095.

Cande, S.C., and Leslie, R.B., 1986. Late Cenozoic tectonics of the southern Chile Trench. J. Geophys. Res., 91(B1):471-496.

Cande, S.C., Leslie, R.B., Parra, J.C., and Hobart, M., 1987. Interaction between the Chile Ridge and Chile Trench: geophysical and geothermal evidence. J. Geophys. Res. 92(B1):495-520.

Cane, M., and Clement, A.C., 1999. A role for the tropical Pacific coupled ocean-atmosphere system on Milankovitch and millennial timescales, Part II: global impacts. In Clark, P., Webb, R., Keigwin, L., (Eds.), Mechanisms of Global Climate Change at Millennial Scales: Geophys. Monogr., Am. Geophys. Union, 112:373-383.

Cannariato, K.G., Kennett, J.P., Behl, R.J., 1999. Biotic response to late Quaternary rapid switches in Santa Barbara Basin: ecological and evolutionary implications. Geology, 27:63-66.

Cannariato, K.G., and Ravelo, A.C., 1997. Pliocene-Pleistocene evolution of the eastern Pacific surface water circulation and thermocline depth. Paleoceanography, 12:805­820.

Charles, C.D., Lynch-Stieglitz, J., Ninnemann, U.S., and Fairbanks, R.G., 1996. Climate connections between the hemisphere revealed by deep sea sediment core/ice core correlations. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 142:19-27.

Christie, D.M., Duncan, R.A., McBirney, A.R., Richards, M.A., White, W.M., Harp, K.S., and Fox, C.G., 1992. Drowned islands downstream from the Galapagos hotspot imply extended speciation times. Nature, 355:246-248.

Clark, P.U., and Pollard, D., 1998. Origin of the middle Pleistocene transition by ice sheet erosion of regolith. Paleoceanography 13:1-9.

Clark, P.U., Webb, R.S., Keigwin, L.D. (Eds.), 1999. Mechanisms of Global Climate Change at Millennial Time Scales, Geophys. Monogr., Am. Geophys. Union, 112.

Clement, A.C., Seager, R., and Cane., M.A., 1999. Orbital controls on the El Niño/Southern Oscillation and the tropical climate. Paleoceanography, 14:441-456.

CLIMAP Project Members, 1976. The surface of the ice age Earth. Science, 191:1131-1137.

CLIMAP Project Members, 1981. Seasonal reconstruction of the Earth's surface at the last glacial maximum. Geol. Soc. Amer., Map and Chart Ser., MC36.

Codispoti, L.A., and Christensen, J.P., 1985. Nitrification, denitrification, and nitrous oxide cycling in the eastern tropical South Pacific Ocean. Mar. Chem., 16:277-300.

Collins, L.S., Coates, A.G., Berggren, W.A., Aubry, M.-P., and Zhang, J., 1996. The late Miocene Panama Isthmian Strait. Geology, 24:687-690.

Cox, A., and Engebretson, D., 1985. Changes in motion of Pacific plate at 5 Myr BP. Nature, 313:472-474.

Crowley, T.J., Kim, K.-Y., Mengel, J.G., and Short, D.A., 1992. Modeling 100,000-year climate fluctuations in pre-Pleistocene time series. Science, 255:705-707.

Curry, W.B., Shackleton, N.J., Richter, C., et al., 1995. Proc. ODP, Init. Repts., 154: College Station, TX (Ocean Drilling Program).

DeMets, C., Gordon, R.G., Argus, D.F., and Stein, S., 1990. Current plate motions. Geophys. J. Int., 101:425-478.

Dengo, G., 1985. Tectonic setting for the Pacific margin from southern Mexico to northwestern Columbia. In Nairn, A.E., Stehli, F.G., and Uyeda, S. (Eds.), The Pacific Ocean: The Ocean Basins And Margins, 7A, New York (Plenum Press), 123-180.

Driscoll, N.W., and Haug, G.H., 1998. A short circuit in thermohaline circulation: a cause for northern hemisphere glaciation? Science, 282:436-438.

Duncan, R.A., and Hargraves, R.B., 1984. Plate tectonic evolution of the Caribbean region in the mantle reference frame. In Bonini, W.E., Hargraves, R.B., Shagam, R. (Eds), The Caribbean South American Plate Boundary and Regional Tectonics. Mem.‹Geol. Soc. Am., 162:81-94.

Duncan, R.A, and Richards, M.A., 1991. Hotspots, mantle plumes, flood basalts, and true polar wander. Rev. Geophys., 29:31-50.

Duque-Caro, H., 1990. Neogene stratigraphy, paleoceanography and paleobiogeography in northwest South America and the evolution of the Panama Seaway. Palaeogeogr., Palaeoclimatol., Palaeoecol., 77:203-234.

Farrell, J.W., Raffi, I., Janecek, T.R., Murray, D.W., Levitan, M., Dadey, K.A., Emeis, K-C., Lyle, M., Flores, J-A., and Hovan, S., 1995. Late Neogene sedimentation patterns in the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean. In Pisias, N.G., Mayer, L.A., Janecek, T.R., Palmer-Julson, A., and van Andel, T.H. (Eds.), Proc. ODP, Sci. Results, 138: College Station, TX (Ocean Drilling Program), 717-756.

Feldberg, M., and Mix, A.C., in press. Sea surface temperature estimates in the southeast Pacific based on planktonic foraminiferal species: modern calibration and last glacial maximum. Mar. Micropaleontol.

Ganeshram, R.S., Pedersen, T.F., Calvert, S.E., and Murray, J.W., 1995. Large changes in oceanic nutrient inventories from glacial to interglacial period. Nature, 376:755-758.

Gildor, H., and Tziperman, E., 2000. Sea ice as the glacial cycles' climate switch: role of seasonal and orbital forcing. Paleoceanography, 15:605-615.

Gordon, A.L., 1986. Interocean exchange of thermocline water. J. Geophys. Res., 91:5037-5046.

Gregory-Wodzicki, K.M., 2000. Uplift history of the Central and Northern Andes: a review. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 112:1091-1105.

Gripp, A.E., and Gordon, R.G., 1990. Current plate velocities relative to the hotspots incorporating the NUVEL-1 Global plate motion model. Geophys. Res. Lett., 17:1109-1112.

Harris, S.E., and Mix, A.C., 1999. Pleistocene precipitation balance in the Amazon basin recorded in deep-sea sediments. Quat, Res., 51:14-26.

Haug, G.H., and Tiedemann, R., 1998. Effect of the formation of the Isthmus of Panama on Atlantic Ocean thermohaline circulation. Nature, 393:673-676.

Haug, G.H., Tiedemann, R., Zahn, R., and Ravelo, A.C., 2001. Role of Panama Uplift on oceanic freshwater balance. Geology, 29:207-210.

Hebbeln, D., Wefer, G., Baltazar, M., Beese, D., Bendtsen, J., Butzin, M., Daneri, G., Dellarossa, V., Diekamp, V., Dittert, N., Donner, B., Giese, M., Glud, R., Gundersen, J., Haese, R., and Hensen, C, 1995. Fahrtbericht zur FS Sonne fahrt SO-102, Valparaiso--Valparaiso, 9.5.-28.6.95. Berichte aus dem Fachbereich Geowissenschaften der Universitat Bremen, 68.

Hendy, I.L., and Kennett, J.P., 1999. Latest Quaternary North Pacific surface water responses imply atmosphere-driven climate instability. Geology, 27:291-294.

Hendy, I.L., and Kennett, J.P., 2000. Dansgaard-Oeschger cycles and the California Current System: planktonic foraminiferal response to rapid climate change in Santa Barbara Basin, Ocean Drilling Program Hole 893A. Paleoceanography, 15:30-42.

Herron, E.M., Cande, S.C., and Hall, B.R., 1981. An active spreading center collides with a subduction zone: a geophysical survey of the Chile Margin triple junction. MemGeol. Soc. Am. 154:683-701.

Hey, R., Johnson, G.L., and Lowrie, A., 1977. Recent plate motions in the Galapagos area. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 88:1385-1403.

Hooghiemstra, H., and Ran, E.T.H., 1994. Late Pliocene-Pleistocene high resolution pollen sequence of Columbia: an overview of climate change. Quat. Intern. 21:63-80.

Imbrie, J., Boyle, E.A., Clemens, S.C., Duffy, A., Howard, W.R., Kukla, G., Kutzbach, J., Martinson, D.G., McIntyre, A., Mix, A.C., Molfino, B., Morley, J.J., Peterson, L.C., Pisias, N.G., Prell, W.L., Raymo, M.E., Shackleton, N.J., and Toggweiler, J.R., 1993. On the structure and origin of major glaciation cycles, 2. The 100,000-year cycle. Paleoceanography, 8:699­736.

Imbrie, J., McIntyre, A., and Mix, A., 1989. Oceanic response to orbital forcing in the late Quaternary: observational and experimental strategies. In Berger, A., Schneider, S., and Duplessy, J.C. (Eds.), Climate and GeoSciences, Dordrecht (Kluwer Academic), 121-164.

Jasper, J., Hayes, J.M., Mix, A.C., and Prahl F.G., 1994. Photosynthetic 13C fractionation and concentrations of dissolved CO2 in the Central Equatorial Pacific during the last 255,000 years. Paleoceanography, 9:781-798.

Jousaumme, S., Sadourny, R., and Vignal, C., 1986. Origin of precipitating water in a numerical simulation of the July climate. Ocean-Air Interactions, 1:43-56.

Keigwin, L.D., and Jones, G.A., 1990. Deglacial climatic oscillations in the Gulf of California. Palecoceanograaphy, 5:1009-1023.

Kemp, A.E.S., Baldauf, J.G., and Pearce, R.B., 1995. Origins and Paleoceanographic significance of laminated diatom ooze from the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean. In Pisias, N.G., Mayer, L.A., Janecek, T.R., Palmer-Julson, A., and van Andel, T.H. (Eds.), Proc. ODP, Sci. Results, 138: College Station, TX (Ocean Drilling Program), 641-645.

Kennett, J.P., 1974. Development of the Circum-Antarctic Current. Science, 186:144-147.

Kennett, J.P., 1977. Cenozoic evolution of Antarctic glaciation, the circum-Antarctic Ocean, and their impact on global paleoceanography. J. Geophys. Res., 82:3843-3860.

Kennett, J.P., and Ingram, B.L., 1995. A 20,000-year record of ocean circulation and climate change from the Santa Barbara basin. Nature, 377:510-513.

Kennett, J.P., and Shackleton, N.J., 1976. Oxygen isotopic evidence for the development of the psychrosphere 38 Myr ago. Nature, 260:513-515.

Kroopnick, P.M., 1985. The distribution of 13C of UCO2 in the world oceans. Deep-Sea Res., Part A, 32:57-84.

Labeyrie, L., and Elliot, M., 1999. Abrupt climatic changes ­ causes and consequences: an introduction. In Abrantes F., and Mix, A. (Eds.), Reconstructing Ocean History, A Window into the Future. New York (Kluwer Press), 73-82.

Lamy, F., Hebbeln, D., and Wefer, G., 1999. High-resolution marine record of climatic change in mid-latitude Chile during the last 28,000 years based on terrigenous sediment parameters. Quat. Res., 51:83-93.

Le, J., Mix, A., and Shackleton, N.J., 1995. Late Quaternary paleoceanography in the eastern equatorial Pacific from planktonic foraminifera: a high-resolution record from Site 846. In Pisias, N.G., Mayer, L., Janecek, T., Palmer-Julson, A., van Andel, T.H. (Eds.), Proc. ODP, Sci. Results, 138: College Station, TX (Ocean Drilling Program), 675-693.

Lea, D.W., Pak, D.K., and Spero, H.J., 2000. Climate impact of late Quaternary equatorial Pacific sea surface temperature variations. Science, 289:1719-1724.

Levitus, S., Conkright, M.E., Reid, J.L., Najjar, R.G., and Mantyla, A., 1993. Distribution of nitrate, phosphate, and silicate in the world oceans. Prog. Oceanogr., 31:245-273.

Liu, Z., and Huang, B., 2000. Cause of tropical Pacific warming trend. Geophys. Res. Lett., 27:1935-1938.

Lonsdale, P., 1976. Abyssal circulation of the southeastern Pacific and some geological implications. J. Geophys. Res., 81:1163-1176.

Lonsdale, P., and Klitgord, K.D., 1978. Structure and tectonic history of the eastern Panama Basin. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull., 89:981-999.

Loubere, P., 2000. Marine control of biological production in the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean. Nature, 406:497-500.

Lowell, T.V., Heusser, C.J., Andersen, B.G., Moreno, P.I., Hauser, A., Heusser, L.E., Schlüchter, C., Marchant, D.R., Denton, G.H., 1995. Interhemispheric correlation of late Pleistocene glacial events. Science, 269:1541-1549.

Lund, D.C., and Mix, A.C., 1998. Millennial-scale deep water oscillations: reflections of the North Atlantic in the deep Pacific from 10 to 60 Ka. Paleoceanography, 13:10-19.

Lyle, M., Murray, D.W., Finney, B.P., Dymond, J., Robbins, J.M., and Brooksforce, K., 1988. The record of late Pleistocene biogenic sedimentation in the eastern tropical Pacific Ocean. Paleoceanography, 3:39-59.

Maasch, K.A., and Saltzman, B., 1990. A low-order dynamical model of global climatic variability over the full Pleistocene. J. Geophys. Res., 95:1955-1963.

MacAyeal, D., 1993. Binge/purge oscillations of the Laurentide Ice Sheet as a cause of the North Atlantic's Heinrich events. Paleoceanography, 8:775-784.

Magaña, V., Amador, J.A., and Medina, S., 1999. The midsummer drought over Mexico and Central America. J. Climate, 12:1577-1588.

Martinez-Pardo, R., 1990. Major Neogene events of the Southeastern Pacific: the Chilean and Peruvian record. Palaeogeogr., Palaeoclimatol., Palaeoecol., 77:263-278.

Mayer, L.A., Shipley, T.H., and Winterer, E.L., 1986. Equatorial Pacific seismic reflectors as indicators of global oceanographic events. Science, 233:761-764.

McIntyre, A., and Molfino, B., 1996. Forcing of Atlantic equatorial and subpolar millennial cycles by precession. Science, 274:1867-1870.

McIntyre, A., Ruddiman, W.F., Karlin, K., and Mix, A.C., 1989. Surface water response of the equatorial Atlantic Ocean to orbital forcing. Paleoceanography, 4:19-55.

Mikolajewicz, U., and Crowley, T.J., 1997. Response of a coupled ocean/energy balance model to restricted flow through the central American Isthmus. Paleoceanography, 12:429-441.

Mikolajewicz, U., Crowley, T.J., Schiller, A., and Voss, R., 1997. Modelling teleconnections between the North Atlantic and North Pacific during the Younger Dryas. Nature, 387:384-387.

Mikolajewicz, U., Maier-Reimer, E., Crowley, T.J., and Kim, K.-Y., 1993. Effect of Drake and Panamanian gateways on the circulation of an ocean model. Paleoceanography, 8:409-426.

Mix, A.C., 1989. Influence of productivity variations on long-term atmospheric CO2. Nature, 337:541-544.

Mix, A.C., Le, J., and Shackleton, N.J., 1995. Benthic foraminifer stable isotope stratigraphy of Site 846: 0-1.8 Ma. In Pisias, N.G., Mayer, L.A., Janecek, T.R., Palmer-Julson, A., and van Andel, T.H. (Eds.), Proc. ODP, Sci. Results, 138: College Station, TX (Ocean Drilling Program), 839 854.

Mix, A.C., Lund, D.C., Pisias, N.G., Bodén, P., Bornmalm, L., Lyle, M., Pike, J., 1999a. Rapid climate oscillations in the northeast Pacific during the last deglaciation reflect northern and southern hemisphere sources. In Clark, P.U., Webb, R.S., and Keigwin, L.D. (Eds.), Mechanisms of Global Climate Change at Millennial Time Scales: Geophys. Monogr., Am. Geophys. Union, 112:127-148.

Mix, A.C., Morey, A.E., Pisias, N.G., Hostetler, S., 1999b. Foraminiferal faunal estimates of paleotemperatures: circumventing the no-analog problems yields cool ice-age tropics. Paleoceanography, 14:350-359

Muller R.A., and MacDonald, G.J., 1997. Glacial cycles and astronomical forcing. Science, 277:215-218.

Ninkovich, D., and Shackleton, N.J., 1975. Distribution, stratigraphic position and age of ash layer "L," in the Panama Basin Region. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 27:20-34.

Oberhänsli, H., Heinze, P., Diester-Haass, L., and Wefer, G., 1990. Upwelling off Peru during the last 430,000 yr and its relationship to the bottom-water environment, as deduced from coarse grain-size distributions and analyses of benthic foraminifers at Holes 679D, 680B, and 681B, Leg 112. In Suess, E., von Huene, R., et al., Proc. ODP, Sci. Results, 112: College Station, TX (Ocean Drilling Program), 369-390.

Phleger, F.B., and Soutar, A., 1973. Production of benthic foraminifera in three east Pacific oxygen minima. Micropaleontology, 19:110-115.

Pinot, S., Ramstein G., Harrison, S.P., Prentice, I.C., Guiot, J., Stute, M., and Joussaume, S., 1999. Tropical paleoclimates at the Last Glacial Maximum: comparison of Paleoclimate Modeling Intercomparison Project (PMIP) simulations and paleodata. Climate Dynamics, 15:857-874.

Pisias, N.G., Mayer, L.A., and Mix, A.C., 1995. Paleoceanography of the eastern equatorial Pacific during the Neogene: synthesis of Leg 138 drilling results. In Pisias, N.G., Mayer, L.A., Janecek, T.R., Palmer-Julson, A., and van Andel, T.H. (Eds.), Proc. ODP, Sci. Results, 138: College Station, TX (Ocean Drilling Program), 5-21.

Pisias, N.G., and Mix, 1997, A.C., 1997. Spatial and temporal oceanographic variability of the eastern equatorial Pacific during the late Pleistocene: evidence from radiolaria microfossils. Paleoceanography, 12:381-393

Rahmstorf, S., 1995. Bifurcations of the Atlantic thermohaline circulation in response to changes in the hydrologic cycle. Nature, 378:145-150.

Reid, J.L., 1973. Transpacific hydrographic sections at Lats. 43S and 28S: The SCORPIO Expedition - III. Upper water and a note on southward flow at mid depth. Deep-Sea Res., 20:39-50.

Rodbell, D.T., Seltzer, G.O., Anderson, D.M., Abbott, M.A., Enfield, D.B., and Newman, J.H., 1999. An ~15,000 year record of El Nino-driven alluviation in southwestern Ecuador. Science, 283:516-520.

Ruddiman, W.F., and M.E. Raymo, 1988. Northern hemisphere climate régimes during the past 3 Ma: possible tectonic connections. Philos Trans. R. Soc. London B, 318:411-430.

Strub, P.T., Mesias, J.M., Montecino, V., Rutllant, J., and Salinas, S., 1998. Coastal Ocean Circulation off Western South America. In Robinson, A.R., and Brink, K.H. (Eds.), The Sea (Coastal Oceans), v. 11, New York (Wiley), 273-313.

Talley, L.D., 1993. Distribution and formation of the North Pacific intermediate water. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 23:517-537.

Tans, P.P., Fung, I.Y., and Takahashi, T., 1990. Observational constraints on the global atmospheric CO2 budget. Science, 247:1431-1438.

Thompson, L.G., Davis, M.E., Mosley-Thompson, E., Sowers, T.A., Henderson, K.A., Zagorodnov, V.S., Lin, P.N., Mikhalenko, V.N., Campen, R.K., Bolzan, J.F., Cole-Dai, J., and Francou, B., 1998. A 25,000-year tropical climate history from Bolivian ice cores. Science, 282:1858-1864.

Toggweiler, J.R., Dixon, K., and Broecker, W.S., 1991. The Peru upwelling and ventilation of the South Pacific thermocline. J. Geophys. Res., 96:20467-20497.

Toggweiler, J.R., and Samuels, B., 1993. Is the magnitude of the deep outflow from the Atlantic Ocean actually governed by southern-hemisphere winds? In Heimann, M. (Ed.), The Global Carbon Cycle: Berlin (Springer Verlag), 303-331.

Tsuchiya, M., and Talley, L.D., 1998. A Pacific hydrographic section at 88 deg W: water-property distribution. J. Geophys. Res., 103(C6):12899-12918.

van Geen, A., Fairbanks, R.G., Dartnell, P., McGann, M., Gardner, J.V., and Kashgarian, M., 1996. Ventilation changes in the northeast Pacific during the last deglaciation. Paleoceanography, 11:519-528.

Van der Hammen, T., Werner, J.H., and Van Dommelen, H., 1973. Palynological record of the upheaval of the northern Andes: a study of the Pliocene and lower Quaternary of the Columbian Eastern Cordillera and the early evolution of its high-Andean biota. Rev. Palaeobotany Palynology, 16:1-122.

Wunsch, C., Hu, D.X., and Grant, B., 1983. Mass, heat, salt, and nutrient fluxes in the South Pacific Ocean. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 13:725-753.

Wyrtki, K., 1962. The oxygen minimum in relation to ocean circulation. Deep-Sea Res., 9:11-23.

Zaucker, F., Stocker, T.F., and Broecker, W.S., 1994. Atmospheric freshwater fluxes and their effect on the global thermohaline circulation. J. Geophys. Res., 99:12443-12457.

Figures and captions | Table of Contents